<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.3 20210610//EN" "JATS-journalpublishing1-3.dtd">
<article article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.3" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xml:lang="ru"><front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">ntv</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title xml:lang="ru">Научно-технический вестник информационных технологий, механики и оптики</journal-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="en"><trans-title>Scientific and Technical Journal of Information Technologies, Mechanics and Optics</trans-title></trans-title-group></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="ppub">2226-1494</issn><issn pub-type="epub">2500-0373</issn><publisher><publisher-name>Университет ИТМО</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.17586/2226-1494-2025-25-5-833-843</article-id><article-id custom-type="elpub" pub-id-type="custom">ntv-513</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Research Article</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="section-heading" xml:lang="ru"><subject>КОМПЬЮТЕРНЫЕ СИСТЕМЫ И ИНФОРМАЦИОННЫЕ ТЕХНОЛОГИИ</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="section-heading" xml:lang="en"><subject>COMPUTER SCIENCE</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Классификация двигательной активности человека на основе анализа мультисенсорных данных</article-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="en"><trans-title>Classification of human motor activity based on multisensory data analysis</trans-title></trans-title-group></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3450-5213</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name name-style="eastern" xml:lang="ru"><surname>Обухов</surname><given-names>А. Д.</given-names></name><name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>Obukhov</surname><given-names>A. D.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>Обухов Артём Дмитриевич — доктор технических наук, профессор, ведущий научный сотрудник</p><p>sc 56104232400</p><p>Тамбов, 392000</p></bio><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Artem D. Obukhov — <ext-link xlink:href="http://D.Sc/" ext-link-type="uri">D.Sc</ext-link>., Professor, Leading Researcher</p><p>sc 56104232400</p><p>Tambov, 392000</p></bio><email xlink:type="simple">obuhov.art@gmail.com</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff-1"/></contrib></contrib-group><aff-alternatives id="aff-1"><aff xml:lang="ru"><institution>Тамбовский государственный технический университет</institution><country>Россия</country></aff><aff xml:lang="en"><institution>Tambov State Technical University</institution><country>Russian Federation</country></aff></aff-alternatives><pub-date pub-type="collection"><year>2025</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>27</day><month>10</month><year>2025</year></pub-date><volume>25</volume><issue>5</issue><fpage>833</fpage><lpage>843</lpage><permissions><copyright-statement>Copyright &amp;#x00A9; Обухов А.Д., 2025</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2025</copyright-year><copyright-holder xml:lang="ru">Обухов А.Д.</copyright-holder><copyright-holder xml:lang="en">Obukhov A.D.</copyright-holder><license xml:lang="ru" license-type="creative-commons-attribution" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xlink:type="simple"><license-p>Данная работа распространяется под лицензией Creative Commons Attribution 4.0.</license-p></license><license xml:lang="en" license-type="creative-commons-attribution" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xlink:type="simple"><license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.</license-p></license></permissions><self-uri xlink:href="https://ntv.elpub.ru/jour/article/view/513">https://ntv.elpub.ru/jour/article/view/513</self-uri><abstract><sec><title>Введение</title><p>Введение. Выполнен анализ мультисенсорных данных, полученных от электромиографа, инерциальных измерительных устройств, системы компьютерного зрения и трекеров виртуальной реальности, для решения задачи классификации двигательной активности человека. Актуальность решения данной задачи обусловлена необходимостью анализа и распознавания двигательной активности человека при использовании различных программно-аппаратных комплексов, например, реабилитационных и тренажерных систем. Для оптимального решения задачи распознавания типа движений рук с наибольшей точностью оценивается вклад каждого источника сигналов, а также выполняется сравнение различных моделей машинного обучения.</p></sec><sec><title>Метод</title><p>Метод. Подход к обработке мультисенсорных данных включает синхронизированный сбор потоков от различных источников, разметку исходных данных, фильтрацию сигналов; двойное выравнивание временных рядов по частоте и длительности с аппроксимацией до общей константы, формирование общего набора данных, обучение и выбор модели машинного обучения для распознавания двигательной активности рук. Рассматриваются девять моделей машинного обучения: логистическая регрессия, k-ближайших соседей, наивный байесовский классификатор, дерево решений и ансамбли на их основе (случайный лес, AdaBoost, Extreme Gradient Boosting, Voting и Stacking Classifier). Разработанный подход синхронизации, фильтрации и двойного выравнивания потоков данных позволяет сформировать унифицированный набор данных мультисенсорных данных для обучения моделей.</p></sec><sec><title>Основные результаты</title><p>Основные результаты. Проведен эксперимент по классификации девяти категорий движений рук на основе анализа мультисенсорных данных (собрано 629 записей от 15 участников). Обучение выполнялось на 80 % собранных данных с пятикратной перекрестной проверкой. Показано, что ансамбль AdaBoost обеспечивает точность классификации 98,8 % на наборе данных из объединенных от четырех различных источников информации. В ходе абляционного анализа для сравнения источников данных, наибольшее влияние на итоговую точность классификации оказывает информация от трекеров виртуальной реальности (до 98,73 ± 1,78 % точности на модели AdaBoost), данные о мышечной активности от электромиографа являются наименее информативными. Определено, что высокая точность классификации двигательной активности может быть получена с использованием инерциальных измерительных устройств.</p></sec><sec><title>Обсуждение</title><p>Обсуждение. Исследование формализует воспроизводимый подход к обработке мультисенсорных данных и позволяет объективно сравнить вклад различных источников информации и моделей машинного обучения при решении задачи классификации двигательной активности рук пользователя в рамках реабилитационных и виртуальных тренажерных систем. Показано, что при ограничениях по ресурсам возможно отказаться от части источников данных без существенной потери точности классификации, упростив аппаратную конфигурацию систем отслеживания, перейти от закрытых коммерческих систем (трекеров виртуальной реальности) к более доступным и компактным инерциальным измерительным устройствам.</p></sec></abstract><trans-abstract xml:lang="en"><p>An analysis of multisensor data obtained from an electromyograph, inertial measurement devices, a computer-vision system, and virtual-reality trackers was performed in order to solve the problem of classifying human motor activity. The relevance of solving this problem is determined by the necessity of analyzing and recognizing human motor activity when using various hardware and software complexes, for example, rehabilitation and training systems. For the optimal solution of the task of recognizing the type of hand movements with the highest accuracy, the contribution of each signal source is evaluated, and a comparison of various machine-learning models is performed. The approach to processing multisensor data includes: synchronized acquisition of streams from different sources; labeling of the initial data; signal filtering; dual alignment of time series by frequency and duration with approximation to a common constant; formation of a common dataset; training and selection of a machine-learning model for recognizing motor activity of the hands. Nine machine-learning models are considered: logistic regression, k-nearest neighbors, naïve Bayes classifier, decision tree, and ensembles based on them (Random Forest, AdaBoost, Extreme Gradient Boosting, Voting, and Stacking Classifier). The developed approach of synchronization, filtering, and dual alignment of data streams makes it possible to form a unified dataset of multisensor data for model training. An experiment was carried out on the classification of nine categories of hand movements based on the analysis of multisensor data (629 recordings collected from 15 participants). Training was performed on 80 % of the collected data with five-fold cross-validation. The AdaBoost ensemble provides a classification accuracy of 98.8 % on the dataset composed of the combined information from four different sources. In the course of ablation analysis for comparing the data sources, the greatest influence on the final classification accuracy is exerted by information from virtual-reality trackers (up to 98.73 % ± 1.78 % accuracy on the AdaBoost model), while data on muscle activity from the electromyograph turned out to be the least informative. It was determined that high classification accuracy of motor activity can be obtained using inertial measurement devices. The considered study formalizes a reproducible approach to processing multisensor data and makes it possible to objectively compare the contribution of different sources of information and machine-learning models in solving the problem of classifying the motor activity of the user’s hands within rehabilitation and virtual training systems. It is shown that under resource limitations it is possible to refuse part of the data sources without significant loss of classification accuracy, simplifying the hardware configuration of tracking systems and making it possible to move from closed commercial systems (virtual-reality trackers) to more accessible and compact inertial measurement devices.</p></trans-abstract><kwd-group xml:lang="ru"><kwd>классификация движений человека</kwd><kwd>двигательная активность</kwd><kwd>машинное обучение</kwd><kwd>анализ мультисенсорных данных</kwd></kwd-group><kwd-group xml:lang="en"><kwd>classification of human movements</kwd><kwd>motor activity</kwd><kwd>machine learning</kwd><kwd>multisensory data analysis</kwd></kwd-group><funding-group><funding-statement xml:lang="ru">Работа выполнена при финансовой поддержке Министерства науки и высшего образования Российской Федерации в рамках проекта «Разработка иммерсивной системы взаимодействия с виртуальной реальностью для профессиональной подготовки на основе всенаправленной платформы» (124102100628-3).</funding-statement><funding-statement xml:lang="en">The work was carried out with the financial support of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation within the framework of the project “Development of an immersive virtual reality interaction system for vocational training based on an omnidirectional platform” (124102100628-3).</funding-statement></funding-group></article-meta></front><back><ref-list><title>References</title><ref id="cit1"><label>1</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Obukhov A., Volkov A., Pchelintsev A., Nazarova A., Teselkin D., Surkova E., Fedorchuk I. Examination of the accuracy of movement tracking systems for monitoring exercise for musculoskeletal rehabilitation // Sensors. 2023. V. 23. N 19. P. 8058. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23198058</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Obukhov A., Volkov A., Pchelintsev A., Nazarova A., Teselkin D., Surkova E., Fedorchuk I. Examination of the accuracy of movement tracking systems for monitoring exercise for musculoskeletal rehabilitation. Sensors, 2023, vol. 23, no. 19, pp. 8058. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23198058</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit2"><label>2</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Obukhov A., Dedov D., Volkov A., Teselkin D. Modeling of nonlinear dynamic processes of human movement in virtual reality based on digital shadows // Computation. 2023. V. 11. N 5. P. 85. https://doi.org/10.3390/computation11050085</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Obukhov A., Dedov D., Volkov A., Teselkin D. Modeling of nonlinear dynamic processes of human movement in virtual reality based on digital shadows. Computation, 2023, vol. 11, no. 5, pp. 85. https://doi.org/10.3390/computation11050085</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit3"><label>3</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Islam M.M., Nooruddin S., Karray F., Muhammad G. Human activity recognition using tools of convolutional neural networks: a state of the art review, data sets, challenges, and future prospects // Computers in Biology and Medicine. 2022. V. 149. P. 106060. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compbiomed.2022.106060</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Islam M.M., Nooruddin S., Karray F., Muhammad G. Human activity recognition using tools of convolutional neural networks: a state of the art review, data sets, challenges, and future prospects. Computers in Biology and Medicine, 2022, vol. 149, pp. 106060. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compbiomed.2022.106060</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit4"><label>4</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Ergun B.G., Şahiner R. Embodiment in virtual reality and augmented reality games: an investigation on user interface haptic controllers // Journal of Soft Computing and Artificial Intelligence. 2023. V. 4. N 2. P. 80–92. https://doi.org/10.55195/jscai.1409156</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ergun B.G., Şahiner R. Embodiment in virtual reality and augmented reality games: an investigation on user interface haptic controllers. Journal of Soft Computing and Artificial Intelligence, 2023, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 80–92. https://doi.org/10.55195/jscai.1409156</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit5"><label>5</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Franček P., Jambrosic K., Horvat M., Planinec V. The performance of inertial measurement unit sensors on various hardware platforms for binaural head-tracking applications // Sensors. 2023. V. 23. N 2. P. 872. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23020872</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Franček P., Jambrosic K., Horvat M., Planinec V. The performance of inertial measurement unit sensors on various hardware platforms for binaural head-tracking applications. Sensors, 2023, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 872. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23020872</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit6"><label>6</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Ghorbani F., Ahmadi A., Kia M., Rahman Q., Delrobaei M. A decision-aware ambient assisted living system with IoT embedded device for in-home monitoring of older adults // Sensors. 2023. V. 23. N 5. P. 2673. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23052673</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ghorbani F., Ahmadi A., Kia M., Rahman Q., Delrobaei M. A decision-aware ambient assisted living system with IoT embedded device for in-home monitoring of older adults. Sensors, 2023, vol. 23, no. 5, pp. 2673. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23052673</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit7"><label>7</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Eliseichev E.A., Mikhailov V.V., Borovitskiy I.V., Zhilin R.M., Senatorova E.O. A review of devices for detection of muscle activity by surface electromyography // Biomedical Engineering. 2022. V. 56. N 1. P. 69–74. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10527-022-10169-4</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Eliseichev E.A., Mikhailov V.V., Borovitskiy I.V., Zhilin R.M., Senatorova E.O. A review of devices for detection of muscle activity by surface electromyography. Biomedical Engineering, 2022, vol. 56, no. 1, pp. 69–74. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10527-022-10169-4</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit8"><label>8</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Chung J.L., Ong L.Y., Leow M.C. Comparative analysis of skeletonbased human pose estimation // Future Internet. 2022. V. 14. N 12. P. 380. https://doi.org/10.3390/fi14120380</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Chung J.L., Ong L.Y., Leow M.C. Comparative analysis of skeletonbased human pose estimation. Future Internet, 2022, vol. 14, no. 12, pp. 380. https://doi.org/10.3390/fi14120380</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit9"><label>9</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Zhang S., Li Y., Zhang S., Shahabi F., Xia S., Deng Y., Alshurafa N. Deep learning in human activity recognition with wearable sensors: a review on advances // Sensors. 2022. V. 22. N 4. P. 1476. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22041476</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Zhang S., Li Y., Zhang S., Shahabi F., Xia S., Deng Y., Alshurafa N. Deep learning in human activity recognition with wearable sensors: a review on advances. Sensors, 2022, vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 1476. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22041476</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit10"><label>10</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Lin J.J., Hsu C.K., Hsu W.L., Tsao T.C., Wang F.C., Yen J.Y. Machine learning for human motion intention detection // Sensors. 2023. V. 23. N 16. P. 7203. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23167203</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Lin J.J., Hsu C.K., Hsu W.L., Tsao T.C., Wang F.C., Yen J.Y. Machine learning for human motion intention detection. Sensors, 2023, vol. 23, no. 16, pp. 7203. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23167203</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit11"><label>11</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Mazon D.M., Groefsema M., Schomaker L.R.B., Carloni R. IMUbased classification of locomotion modes, transitions, and gait phases with convolutional recurrent neural networks // Sensors. 2022. V. 22. N 22. P. 8871. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22228871</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Mazon D.M., Groefsema M., Schomaker L.R.B., Carloni R. IMUbased classification of locomotion modes, transitions, and gait phases with convolutional recurrent neural networks. Sensors, 2022, vol. 22, no. 22, pp. 8871. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22228871</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit12"><label>12</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Gonzales-Huisa O.A., Oshiro G., Abarca V.E., Chavez-Echajaya J.G., Elias D.A. EMG and IMU data fusion for locomotion mode classification in transtibial amputees // Prosthesis. 2023. V. 5. N 4. P. 1232–1256. https://doi.org/10.3390/prosthesis5040085</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Gonzales-Huisa O.A., Oshiro G., Abarca V.E., Chavez-Echajaya J.G., Elias D.A. EMG and IMU data fusion for locomotion mode classification in transtibial amputees. Prosthesis, 2023, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 1232–1256. https://doi.org/10.3390/prosthesis5040085</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit13"><label>13</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Vásconez J.P., López L.I.B., Caraguay A.L.V., Benalcázar M.E. Hand gesture recognition using EMG-IMU signals and deep q-networks // Sensors. 2022. V. 22. N 24. P. 9613. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22249613</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Vásconez J.P., López L.I.B., Caraguay A.L.V., Benalcázar M.E. Hand gesture recognition using EMG-IMU signals and deep q-networks. Sensors, 2022, vol. 22, no. 24, pp. 9613. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22249613</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit14"><label>14</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Sulla-Torres J., Gamboa A.C., Llanque C.A., Osorio J.A., Carnero M.Z. Classification of motor competence in schoolchildren using wearable technology and machine learning with hyperparameter optimization // Applied Sciences. 2024. V. 14. N 2. P. 707. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14020707</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Sulla-Torres J., Gamboa A.C., Llanque C.A., Osorio J.A., Carnero M.Z. Classification of motor competence in schoolchildren using wearable technology and machine learning with hyperparameter optimization. Applied Sciences, 2024, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 707. https:// doi.org/10.3390/app14020707</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit15"><label>15</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Stančić I., Music J., Grujic T., Vasic M.K., Bonkovic M. Comparison and evaluation of machine learning-based classification of hand gestures captured by inertial sensors // Computation. 2022. V. 10. N 9. P. 159. https://doi.org/10.3390/computation10090159</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Stančić I., Music J., Grujic T., Vasic M.K., Bonkovic M. Comparison and evaluation of machine learning-based classification of hand gestures captured by inertial sensors. Computation, 2022, vol. 10, no. 9, pp. 159. https://doi.org/10.3390/computation10090159</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit16"><label>16</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Ogundokun R.O., Maskeliunas R., Misra S., Damasevicius R. Hybrid inceptionv3-svm-based approach for human posture detection in health monitoring systems // Algorithms. 2022. V. 15. N 11. P. 410. https://doi.org/10.3390/a15110410</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ogundokun R.O., Maskeliunas R., Misra S., Damasevicius R. Hybrid inceptionv3-svm-based approach for human posture detection in health monitoring systems. Algorithms, 2022, vol. 15, no. 11, pp. 410. https://doi.org/10.3390/a15110410</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit17"><label>17</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Farhadpour S., Warner T.A., Maxwell A.E. Selecting and interpreting multiclass loss and accuracy assessment metrics for classifications with class imbalance: Guidance and best practices // Remote Sensing. 2024. V. 16. N 3. P. 533. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16030533</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Farhadpour S., Warner T.A., Maxwell A.E. Selecting and interpreting multiclass loss and accuracy assessment metrics for classifications with class imbalance: Guidance and best practices. Remote Sensing, 2024, vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 533. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16030533</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit18"><label>18</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Jiang Y., Song L., Zhang J., Song Y., Yan M. Multi-category gesture recognition modeling based on sEMG and IMU signals // Sensors. 2022. V. 22. N 15. P. 5855. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22155855</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Jiang Y., Song L., Zhang J., Song Y., Yan M. Multi-category gesture recognition modeling based on sEMG and IMU signals. Sensors, 2022, vol. 22, no. 15, pp. 5855. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22155855</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit19"><label>19</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Lin W.C., Tu Y.C., Lin H.Y., Tseng M.H. A comparison of deep learning techniques for pose recognition in Up-and-Go pole walking exercises using skeleton images and feature data // Electronics. 2025. V. 14. N 6. P. 1075. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics14061075</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Lin W.C., Tu Y.C., Lin H.Y., Tseng M.H. A comparison of deep learning techniques for pose recognition in Up-and-Go pole walking exercises using skeleton images and feature data. Electronics, 2025, vol. 14, no. 6, pp. 1075. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics14061075</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit20"><label>20</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Mohammadzadeh A.K., Alinezhad E., Masoud S. Neural-Network-Driven intention recognition for enhanced Human–Robot Interaction: a Virtual-Reality-Driven approach // Machines. 2025. V. 13. N 5. P. 414. https://doi.org/10.3390/machines13050414</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Mohammadzadeh A.K., Alinezhad E., Masoud S. Neural-NetworkDriven intention recognition for enhanced Human–Robot Interaction: a Virtual-Reality-Driven approach. Machines, 2025, vol. 13, no. 5, pp. 414. https://doi.org/10.3390/machines13050414</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref></ref-list><fn-group><fn fn-type="conflict"><p>The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest present.</p></fn></fn-group></back></article>
